E. C. Tolman emphasized the purposiveness of behavior — the idea that much of our behavior is goal-directed. For instance, employees who aim for a promotion work diligently to meet their targets. Tolman argued that when classical conditioning and operant conditioning occur, the organism acquires certain expectations. In classical conditioning, a child might fear a dog because they expect it to bite. In operant conditioning, a person might consistently work overtime because they expect a bonus at the end of the month. Thus, according to this reasoning, when we learn through conditioning, we are not only forming associations but also developing expectations about the world.
Expectations arise from individuals' experiences with their environment. For example, individuals who are trying to save money might spend less when they have left their credit cards at home. One reason this tactic works is that it defies their expectations: they expected to make purchases, not to avoid them. Expectancies also influence the placebo effect. Studies have shown that many medications are more effective in reducing symptoms when patients are aware of receiving treatment compared to when they are unaware. If patients know they are receiving medication, they can leverage their own expectations to enhance the drug's effectiveness.
Latent learning, also known as implicit learning, is unreinforced learning that is not immediately evident in behavior. Latent learning can occur incidentally as a result of experience, without any reinforcement. For example, someone might learn the layout of a new city simply by walking through it regularly, even if they never consciously try to memorize the streets. This type of learning demonstrates that knowledge can be acquired passively and without direct reinforcement.
Tolman emphasized that behavior is often purposive or goal-directed. For instance, an employee working towards a promotion consistently puts in extra effort to exceed performance targets.
Purposive learning can be classified into expectancy and latent learning based on its purpose.
When classical and operant conditioning occurs, individuals develop specific expectations based on their experiences and interactions with the environment.
In classical conditioning, a child might be scared of a balloon because they expect it to make a loud noise that is surprising and unpleasant.
In operant conditioning, a student completes their homework regularly with the expectation of receiving praise from their teacher.
Expectations also influence the placebo effect, where a sugar pill can alleviate symptoms when patients believe they are receiving real medication.
Conversely, latent learning, also known as implicit or incidental learning, is unreinforced learning that becomes evident when there is a reason to demonstrate it.
For instance, after several visits to a large shopping mall without a specific purpose, one can quickly find a particular store when needed.
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